Homosexual experiences
It is generally assumed that a person’s sexual experiences during childhood and adolescence can play an important role in the development of sexual orientation. In particular, it has been suggested that recurrent and gratifying sexual contacts with members of the opposite sex predispose a person toward a pattern of heterosexual responsiveness; recurrent, gratifying contacts with members of the same sex, by contrast, have been thought to encourage homosexual responsiveness. Adult sexual preference, then, has been viewed as a continuation of the “habits” of sexual responsiveness that were established during childhood or adolescence.
Thus, it can be hypothesized that homosexual women are more likely than their heterosexual counterparts to recall having had pleasurable sexual contacts with other females while they were growing up. One researcher has suggested that at a relatively early age prehomosexual girls usually experience being in love with another female, romantic fantasies and genital sensations involving other girls, and what he described as “compulsive” homosexual sex play. Other researchers have reported a much greater tendency for homosexual women to have formed early romantic attachments with strong sexual undertones to other females (usually schoolmates and friends but often female teachers or other adults). In addition, the lesbians in that study recalled having had homosexual feelings at earlier ages than the heterosexual women recalled having had heterosexual feelings. Unlike the men in that study, however, relatively few of the homosexual women had had sexual contact with other girls before mid-adolescence, and those who did reported that it took place on the average of less than once a month.
Comparison of homosexual and heterosexual experiences
Some theorists have suggested that it is not so much a matter of whether a girl has homosexual or heterosexual experiences per se that is important but the relative constellation of homosexual and heterosexual experiences — i.e., which type occurred earlier or which was more enjoyable. In this line of thinking, one might expect girls to be influenced toward preferring the type that occurred first and/or proved more enjoyable.
Among those who recalled having been sexually aroused both by a male and by a female before they reached age 19, the homosexual and the heterosexual women did not differ in which type of arousal occurred first.
Age at puberty, masturbation, and orgasm during sleep
As with males, one may suppose that early-maturing females may have different kinds of sexual experiences than do those who reach puberty at later ages. Early maturers, for example, might become the targets for sexual advances on the part of males at an age when they are ill prepared for them. Resentment at being singled out as sexual objects might result in a general aversion toward heterosexual contacts at later stages of their development. At the same time, it could be speculated that sexual precocity might lead to the emergence of sexual fantasies involving close female friends and, together with relatively early masturbatory experience, might help to establish a pattern of sexual arousal and interest in a homosexual direction. Given such possibilities, we ascertained the ages at which our respondents reached puberty as well as other evidence of sexual precocity that might explain differences in their sexual orientation.
In order to explore such issues, we used the age at which respondents began to menstruate as a measure of physical maturation. We also considered their reports about their experiences regarding menstruation as possible indicators of how much difficulty they might have had in dealing with their “womanly” status. Finally, masturbation and orgasm in sleep are considered also as possible indicators of sexual precocity or level of sexual interest.
Parents’ sexual attitudes
Our interview schedule did not contain any open-ended questions about parents’ sexual attitudes; hence no illustrative quotations are provided.
Some theorists have suggested that in many cases female homosexuality may result directly or indirectly from extremely negative sexual attitudes on the part of parents. Such attitudes, it has been argued, may lead girls to inhibit heterosexual feelings and may prompt parents to shelter their daughters to such an extent that they block the daughters’ opportunities to establish heterosexual relationships. In this regard, one study found that psychiatrists described both the fathers and the mothers of their homosexual female patients as sexually “puritanical”. In addition, it has been suggested that if a girl has been repeatedly warned against sexual contact with boys and then finds her first such contacts unpleasant, she may consider her parents’ attitudes as justified and avoid further heterosexual experiences.
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Possible Problems While Using the IUD
Most women adjust to their IUDs with few or no problems. But for some women:
• cramping may be greater (mostly for a brief time after insertion)
• bleeding may occur between periods
• periods may be heavier and last longer (less so with IUDs containing hormones)
• there is slight risk of genital tract infection during the first three months of use
There is a small chance that the IUD may be expelled from the uterus. You may not know it, and pregnancy could result. Pregnancy with an IUD in place is rare, but if signs of pregnancy occur, you should have a pelvic exam immediately. If you are pregnant, the IUD should be removed as soon as possible. Removal lessens the chance of serious infections that can be life-threatening in rare cases. Removal also reduces chances of miscarriage or premature delivery. In some cases, however, removal may trigger a miscarriage. If you want to end the pregnancy, an abortion should be done early.
Some IUD users have had ectopic (tubal) pregnancies. But ectopic pregnancy occurs less frequently for IUD users than it does for women who use no method. In the rare case, however, when an IUD fails, there is a greater chance that the pregnancy will be in the tube. Ectopic pregnancies are life-threatening. They are usually removed with surgery.
Infection of the fallopian tubes happens more often in IUD users than in nonusers. But the risk of infection is greater only for women who have more than one sex partner or whose partner has other partners. Women who wear IUDs must use condoms if:
• they have more than one partner
• they take a new partner or change partners
• their partner has more than one partner
Infection, with or without symptoms, may increase the risk of tubal pregnancy, cause sterility, or, very rarely, require removal of reproductive organs. An infection that is not treated might become fatal.
Rarely, the IUD may puncture the wall of the uterus. This is usually associated with insertion. In such cases, surgery may be required to remove the IUD.
Warning signs
Tell your clinician immediately if you are not able to feel the string or if you have:
• a missed, late, or light period
• severe cramping or increasing pain in the lower abdomen
• unexplained fever and/or chills
• pain or bleeding during sex
• increased or bad-smelling vaginal discharge
How to Get IUDs and What They Cost
Visit your local Planned Parenthood health center, a family planning clinic, your HMO, or a private doctor. At this time in the United States, the variety of available IUDs is limited. Consult your clinician for more information.
The exam, insertion, and follow-up visit range from $175 to $450. These services are priced according to income at some family planning clinics and are covered by Medicaid.
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The intrauterine device (IUD) is the world’s most popular method of reversible birth control for women. Nearly 100 million women use it—20 percent of all women who use birth control, including 40 percent of the women in China who use contraception. When placed inside a woman’s uterus, an IUD helps prevent pregnancy. Not all IUDs are alike. There are several types, and they come in different sizes. The IUD is the most cost-effective reversible method of contraception available in the world.
The IUD is recognized by the World Health Organization and the American Medical Association as one of the safest and most effective temporary methods of birth control for women. Unfortunately, several years of negative publicity and speculation followed lawsuits brought on by the sale and use of a faulty IUD—the Dalkon Shield—and raised many questions about the safety of all IUDs. Lawsuits sparked by the sale of the Dalkon Shield caused some manufacturers to withdraw even safe IUDs from the American market. For these reasons, the variety of available IUDs in the United States is limited, and the once popular IUD is used by fewer than 2 percent of American women who use reversible contraception.
IUDs are reversible prescription methods of birth control. They are small devices made of plastic that contain copper or a natural hormone. If you choose the IUD, your clinician will suggest which is the right type for you before inserting it into your vagina. The ParaGard (Copper T-380 A) can be left in place for 10 years. The Progestasert must be replaced every year. Insertion and removal must be done by a clinician.
How IUDs Work
IUDs usually work by preventing fertilization of the egg. They may also work by affecting the way sperm or eggs move or by affecting the lining of the uterus in ways that prevent implantation.
Effectiveness of IUDs
The IUD is one of the most effective reversible methods of birth control available to women in the United States. Of 100 women who use IUDs, fewer than three will become pregnant during the first year of typical use. Fewer than one will become pregnant with perfect use of the ParaGard (Copper T-380 A). Only two will become pregnant with perfect use of the Progestasert. Fewer pregnancies occur with continued use.
You can increase your protection by checking for the IUD string regularly.
The IUD provides no protection against sexually transmitted infections.
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Mothers’ personal traits
In keeping with the usual view that prehomosexual females are likely to have relatively unfavorable relationships with their mothers, it is frequently assumed that such girls tend to have negative perceptions of their mothers during the time they are growing up. Their mothers have been portrayed as unhappy over their female status, resentful of their roles as wives and mothers, and as either inadequate or domineering individuals whose distasteful personalities are responsible for predictably negative relationships with their daughters. In one study the mothers of homosexual females have been described as inadequate, and in two others as domineering and hostile. Thus, we considered whether the homosexual and heterosexual respondents differed in the ways they described their mothers’ personal traits and the extent to which such perceptions might affect the development of their sexual orientation.
As noted earlier, psychoanalytic theory regards a girl’s identification with her mother as a crucial step in the resolution of her presumed “Oedipal” conflict, and hence in her developing a heterosexual orientation. By identifying with her mother, this model suggests, a daughter resolves any ambivalence she feels about being female and begins to anticipate the kinds of rewards and relationships that are evident in her mother’s life. Otherwise, it has been suggested, she may come to reject her female status in favor of more “masculine” attitudes and behaviors. This rejection is thought to block the development of heterosexual interests and to encourage a different, often homosexual, resolution of the “Oedipal” situation.
Despite the importance that has been assigned to a girl’s identification with her mother as an explanation of her later sexual orientation, the only empirical support for such an appraisal comes from a single study in which homosexual daughters were found to be disinclined to imitate their mothers.
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Vaginitis is a condition in which the walls of the vagina become irritated or infected, causing discharge, itching, irritation, and discomfort. Vaginitis may also cause vaginal bleeding, pain in the lower abdomen, and pain during sexual intercourse. About 75 percent of women will have at least one vaginal infection in their lifetime, and 22 million will have repeat infections. The five most common types are atrophic vaginitis, vaginal yeast infections, chemical vaginitis, BV (bacterial vaginosis), and trichomoniasis.
Atrophic Vaginitis
This vaginal irritation causes no discharge. It is brought about by a low level of estrogen caused by menopause, removal of the ovaries, pelvic radiation treatments, certain kinds of chemotherapy, and childbirth, especially when followed by breast-feeding. Low estrogen levels also make vaginal tissue become thinner and drier. Women may also notice spotting caused by tearing of the dry skin.
Sexually active women with atrophic vaginitis experience painful intercourse and may need to use lubricants or engage in other types of sex play. Estrogen vaginal creams or oral tablets can rebuild the vaginal tissue, restore lubrication, and decrease irritation.
Yeast Vaginitis
Many different bacteria and organisms live in a healthy vagina. They don’t usually cause any problems because there are not too many of one kind. Yeast vaginitis is an inflammation of the vagina that is caused by a change in the normal balance of vaginal bacteria or yeasts. The most common cause is an overgrowth of yeasts from a family called Candida. Symptoms include:
• thick, cottage cheese-like vaginal discharge
• a yeasty odor
• itching or irritation of the vagina and/or the vulva
Persistent or recurrent vaginitis may lead your clinician to evaluate you for diabetes or other diseases—although these are not common causes. Women may also have chronic vaginitis because of the altered balance of bacteria in their lower bowels. The abnormal balance of bacteria in the bowel may create an overgrowth of yeast that is reflected in the vagina. Fecal bacteria may also enter the vagina through sweat, wiping, and sexual activity. If the bowel bacteria are not in healthy balance, the vaginal bacteria may become altered with a resulting chronic vaginitis. Bacterial imbalances are commonly the result of overuse of antibiotics and a high-sugar diet.
Chemical Vaginitis
Objects and chemicals left in the vagina may cause irritations that lead to vaginitis. Do not leave tampons, toilet tissue, contraceptives, or other objects in the vagina longer than necessary. Some women have very sensitive skin in the vulvar area—often because of a recent infection. The skin may be further irritated by scented toilet paper or tampons, vaginal sprays, and soap and shampoo residue. Other possible irritants are latex condoms, diaphragms and cervical caps, and spermicides.
Bacterial Vaginosis (Â V)
BV is a condition caused by a change in the balance of vaginal bacteria. Normal lactobacilli decrease in number as the number of competing bacteria increase. Hundreds of thousands of women in the United States develop BV every year. It is not usually sexually transmitted, but it may be aggravated by sexual intercourse. It is not a true vaginitis because it is not an “inflammation” and does not cause irritation or itching. Common symptoms of BV include heavy and unusual vaginal discharge that is often thin and gray and may have a “fishy” odor, especially after intercourse.
The disturbed balance of vaginal bacteria that causes BV can be created by antibiotics or the presence of fecal material—as in diarrhea. It can be further intensified by introducing new bacteria through intercourse and the presence of a man’s ejaculate.
BV is diagnosed by microscopic examination of the vaginal discharge. Ironically, it is treated with antibiotics, either in vaginal gel or in pill form.
Trichomoniasis.
Treatment of yeast vaginitis
• Use over-the-counter antifungal creams, ointments, or suppositories or oral medications if your yeast infection has been verified by a clinician.
• Eat plain yogurt with live acidophilus culture, or take tablets containing the culture.
• Wear breathable underwear, panty hose with a cotton crotch, or loose-fitting pants.
• Do not share towels.
• Do not sit around in a wet bathing suit.
• Always wipe away from the vagina after bowel movements or urination.
• Some women find it soothing to apply yogurt directly to the vagina. Some soak a tampon in yogurt and insert it.
Additional treatments for recurrent yeast vaginitis:
• Avoid simple sugars and carbohydrates such as candy, cake, and ice cream.
• Limit or avoid foods containing yeasts, molds, or ferments such as cheese and bread.
• Use antifungal medicines, such as caprylic acid, citrus seed extracts, or garlic products. These can be found in most health food stores.
• Use antibiotics only if necessary.
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